GTIN-13 number encoded in EAN-13 barcode. First digit is
always placed outside the symbol; additionally a right quiet zone
indicator (>) is used to indicate Quiet Zones that are necessary for
barcode scanners to work properly.
An EAN-13 barcode (originally European Article Number, but now renamed
International Article Number even though the abbreviation EAN has been
retained) is a 13 digit (12 data and 1 check) barcoding standard which
is a superset of the original 12-digit Universal Product Code (UPC)
system developed in the United States. The EAN-13 barcode is defined by
the standards organization GS1.
The EAN-13 barcodes are used worldwide for marking products often sold
at retail point of sale. The numbers encoded in EAN-13 bar codes are
product identification numbers, which are also called Japanese Article
Number (JAN) in Japan. All the numbers encoded in UPC and EAN barcodes
are known as Global Trade Item Numbers (GTIN), and they can be encoded
in other GS1 barcodes.
The less commonly used EAN-8 barcodes are used also for marking retail
goods; however, they are usually reserved for smaller items, for example
confectionery.
2-digit (EAN 2) and 5-digit (EAN 5) supplemental barcodes may be added
for a total of 14 or 17 data digits. These are generally used for
periodicals (to indicate the serial number), or books and weighed
products like food (to indicate the selling price), respectively. \
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1)
Information Exchange Groups: In the 1960s an interesting experiment
was supported by the National Institutes of Health of the United States for
facilitate rapid communication of research information among scientist by
creating a formal organization for the exchange of preprints. The experiment,
hailed as one of the most revolutionary innovations in the history of science
communication, consisted of setting up a series of Information Exchange Group
(IEG) for different field of inquiry. Membership in the group was free and
opens to any scientists actively engaged in research and each group had a
chairman whose task was to ensure smooth functioning of the group. Any member
could submit a written communication for distribution to the other members of
the group. The IEG head office in Bethesda, Maryland, then made copes of the
communication called IEG Memoranda, and mailed them to the group member without
charge. There was no restriction on the material submitted for distribution,
copies of papers submitted for publication in primary journals, preliminary
reports of unfinished research, comments on other communication, reviews, abstracts,
notes on events and even enquiries were accepted and distributed as IEG
Memoranda without any editorial scrutiny. In all seven IEG were established and
were in operation between 1961 – 67.
During
the initial years of the project, the IEG were successful and become quite
popular with the participating scientist, mainly because of the speed with
which papers could be transmitted to their peers through the IEGs. In fact the
IEGs became so popular that both the membership and the number of communication
submitted for distribution grew to unmanageable proportions resulting creation
of the following problems.
i) The cost becomes so increases that it
becomes impossible of raising their sum of money every year from any source on
a continuing basis.
ii) Overwhelming inundation of memoranda
many of which were of questionable quality and doubtful utility.
iii) Unaccepted delay in the duplication
and transmission of the memoranda.
iv) A suspected lowering of the standard
of scholarship (presumably due to the absence of any editorial scrutiny).
v) Strong wave of opposition from a
group of editors of primary journals.
Thus
despite its initial success the IEGs was called off by the National Institute
of Health in 1967 and resulted abandonment of the whole project.
The
main conclusion of the whole project or the experiment were that IEG concept
was workable and the IEGs could be a valuable adjunct to complement the primary
journal provided that compact groups could be built around well defined
problems or phenomena under active investigation by a small group of scientist.
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Hypotheses: An investigator cannot enter in any field with a blank
mind. Normally he or she begins the task of investigation with some ideas about
the subject matter vaguely formulated. Having thus entered the field of
investigation, he or she proceeds to find out whether these ideas what he or
she has conceived are true or false. They may be totally correct or only
partially so, or may be altogether false but as a guide to understanding the
problem on hand, these ideas are very useful. These primary ideas which guide
the investigator in his study may be termed as hypothesis.
The concept of hypothesis has been
defined by various scientists in their own ways. Hypo means “less than” and
thesis means “a generally held view”. Etymologically speaking thus the word
hypothesis connotes “a less than generally held view”. It is an assumption or
supposition whose validity is to be tested.
a) Definition: A hypothesis is a tentative answer to a research
problem, expressed in the form of a clearly stated relation between the
independent and the dependent variables. Hypotheses are tentative answers
because they can be verified only after they have been tested empirically.
According
to Rumel and Belline “a hypothesis is a statement capable of being tested and
thereby verified or rejected”.
According
to Goode and Hatt “hypothesis is a shrewd guess that is formulated and
provisionally adopted to explain observed facts, or conditions and to guide in
further investigation”. They further add that “it is a proposition which can be
put to test to determine its validity. It may prove to be correct or
incorrect”.
In the words of
George Lundberg, “a hypothesis is a tentative generalization, the validity of
which remains to be tested. In its most elementary stage the hypothesis may be
any hunch, guess, imaginative idea, which becomes the basis for action or
investigation”.
Barr and Scates
define hypothesis as “a hypothesis is a statement temporarily accepted as true…
when the hypothesis is fully established, it may take the form of facts,
principles or theories”.
According to
Webster, “a hypothesis is a proposition, condition or principle which is
assumed, perhaps without belief in order to draw out its logical consequences
and by this method to test its accord with facts which are known or may be
determined”.
Kerlinger states
“a hypothesis is a conjectural statement of relation between two or more
variables. Hypothesis are always in declarative sentence form and they relate whether
generally or specifically variables to variables”.
James E.
Creighlon defines hypothesis as “a tentative supposition or provisional guess
which seems to explain the situation under observation”.
In the opinion
of J. S. Mill “a hypothesis is only an unproved supposition, a weak form of
proposition”.
Hypothesis
simply means a mere assumption or some supposition to be proved or disproved.
It is a preposition or a set of proposition set forth as an explanation for the
occurrence of some specified group of phenomena either asserted merely as a
provisional conjecture to guide some investigation or accepted as highly
probable in the light of established facts. Quite often a research hypothesis
is a predictive statement capable of being tested by scientific methods that
relates an independent variable to some dependent variable. It is a statement
in a research, which the study might prove or disprove.
b) Types of Hypothesis: There
are different approaches to classify the hypothesis. Some of them are listed
below-
i) Goode and Hatt
Classification: According to Goode and Hatt, there are mainly two types of
hypothesis
* Crude Hypothesis: A
crude hypothesis is at the low level of abstraction. It indicates the kind of
data to be collected and it does not lead to higher theoretical research.
* Refined Hypothesis: Refined
hypothesis are of three types- simple level, complex ideal and very complex. Simple Levelindicates merely the uniformity in social behavior. It does not
involve much verification. Complex
Ideal Hypothesis is at higher level of abstraction. This hypothesis
examines the logically derived relations between the empirical uniformities.
This type of hypothesis is useful in developing tools of analysis. It provides
constructs for further hypothesizing. The Very Complex Hypothesis is concerned with the interrelations of
multiple variables.
ii) P. V. Young Classification:
Young refers to mainly two types of hypothesis-Working Hypothesis and Explanatory Hypothesis.Working Hypothesisis a provisional
central idea which becomes the basis for fruitful investigation. The Explanatory Hypothesisrefers to the
scope of going into the depth and width with various possibilities so far
invisible. iii) Statistical Analysis: In the context of statistical analysis,
a hypothesis may be any one of the following types-
* Null Hypothesis: Null
means Zero. The null hypothesis is a statistical proposition which states,
essentially that, there is no relation between the variable (of the problem).
When a hypothesis is stated negatively, then it is called as a null hypothesis.
A null hypothesis is used to collect additional support for the known
hypothesis. The null hypothesis says, “You are wrong, there is no relation,
disprove me if you can”. The objective of the null hypothesis is to avoid
personal bias of the investigator in the matter of data collection.
* Alternative Hypothesis: That which is concluded rejecting the
null hypothesis is known as alternative hypothesis. Alternative hypothesis is
formulated embracing a whole range of values rather than a single point.
For example:
HA = the males
visited cinema more than the female.
H0= the males
and females do not different in respect of the frequency of seeing cinema.
So, alternative
hypothesis is usually the one which one wishes to prove and the null hypothesis
is the one which one wishes to disprove.
iv) Others: Hypothesis may
further be classified into Descriptive
Hypothesis and Rational Hypothesis. Descriptive hypothesis are
propositions that typically state the existence, size, form, or distribution of
some variables. The Rational hypothesison the other handis
a statement that describes the relationship between two variables. Eg. Families
with higher income spend more for recreation.
c) Difficulties in Formulating
a Hypothesis: According to Goode and Hatt, the following difficulties arise
in formulating the hypothesis-
i) Lack of Previous Knowledge of
the Field of Enquiry: In the absence of knowledge concerning a subject
matter, one can make no well founded judgment of relevance hypothesis. ii)
Lack of Clear Theoretical Background: Hypothesis do not have a clear
cut and definitive theoretical background, partly it is a matter of lifting
upon an idea on some problem. iii)
Lack of Logical Background: Formulation of proper hypothesis to a great
extent depends on one’s experience and logical insight.
iv) Lack of Knowledge of
Scientific Method: It is not always possible to have complete
information of and acquaintance with the scientific methods for formulating
hypothesis. This lack of scientific knowledge presents difficulty in
formulation of hypothesis.
d) Functions of Hypothesis: Cohen
and Nagel’s are of the view that we cannot take a single step forward in any
inquiry without a hypothesis. Without hypothesis mere collection of data is likely
to lead the researcher anywhere without aim and produce no result. The main
functions of hypothesis are-
i) Prevent Blind Research:
It spells out the difference between precision and haphazard research, between
fruitful and fruitless research. It helps in selecting pertinent factors. It
makes the enquiry more specific and to the point.
ii) Foundation of Research:
The hypotheses are the foundation of scientific research. If a proper
hypothesis is formulated then one fourth of the research works comes to an end.
iii) New Experiment and
Observation: A hypothesis what we are looking for is a proposition
which can be put to test to determine its validity.
iv) Provide Direction to
Research: Hypothesis shows the line, in which way the researcher has to
proceed. Hypothesis is investigator’s eye – a sort of guiding light in the
world of research darkness to identify which is relevant and which is irrelevant
v) Link the Investigation with
Theory: Hypothesis is necessary to link between investigation and
theory, which lead to the discovery of additional knowledge.
vi) Serve as a Framework for
Drawing Meaningful Conclusion: Direct answer to the hypothesis being
tested.
vii) Lead to Discovery of Laws:
Hypothesis leads one to the discovery of laws and theory.
e) Conclusion: A
hypothesis looks forward. It is a proposition which can be put to an empirical
test to determine its validity. Every worthwhile theory permits the formulation
of additional hypothesis. These, when tested, are either proved or disproved
and thus in their own constitute further tests of the original theory.
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