Paper-II
1. Language and Linguistics
Notions of Language : Language as written
text—Philological and literary notions i.e., norm, purity and their
preservation, language as a cultural heritage—Codification and
transmission of cultural knowledge and behaviour, language as a marker
of social identity—Language boundary, Dialect and language—Codes of
special groups—Use of language( s ) to express multiple identities;
Language as an object i.e., notion of autonomy, structure and its units
and components; Language in spoken and written modes and relation
between them; Writing system—-Units of writing—Sound ( alphabetic ), or
Syllable ( syllabic ) and Morpheme/Word ( logographic ).
Approaches to the Study of Language : Semiotic
approach—Interpretation of sign; language as a system of social
behaviour—Use of language in family, community and country; Language as a
system of communication— Communicative functions—Emotive, Conative,
Referential, Poetic, Metalinguistic and Phatic; Sign language; Animal
communication system and formal language; Design features of
language—Arbitrariness, Double articulation, Displacement,
interchangeability and specialisation; Language as a congnitive
system—Knowledge representation; Relation with culture and thought,
i.e., concept formation; existence of language faculty; linguistic
competence, ideal speaker-hearer.
Structure of Language : Levels and their
hierarchy—Phonological. Morphological, Syntactic and semantic, their
interrelations; Universal and specific properties of language—Formal and
substantive universals. Synchronic and diachronic view of language;
Language relation—Genetic, areal and typological; Concepts of langue and
parole, idiolect and language.
Grammatical Analysis : Linguistic units and their
distribution at different levels; Notions of contrast and
complementation; -etic and -emic categorisation; Paradigmatic and
syntagmatic relations; Notions of word classes ( parts of speech ) and
grammatical categories; Grammatical relations and case relations; notion
of rule at different levels; description vs explanation of grammatical
facts.
Linguistics and Others Fields : Relevance of
linguistics to other fields of enquiry—Philosophy, Anthropology,
Sociology, Political Science, Psychology, Education, Computer Science
and Literature.
2. Phonetics, Phonology and Morphology
Phonetics : Definition; Mechanisms of speech
production—Airstream mechanism, oro-nasal process, Phonation process and
articulation ( place and manner ); cardinal vowels ( primary and
secondary ); vowels and consonants ( liquids, glides ); secondary
articulation; coarticulation; syllable; phonetic transcription ( IPA );
suprasegmentals—Length, stress, tone, intonation and juncture.
Phonology : Phonetics vs phonology; concept of
phoneme, phone and allophone; Principles of phonemic analysis—Phonetic
similarity, contrast, complementary distribution, free variation,
economy, pattern congruity; alternation and neutralization; distinctive
features; syllable in phonology.
Morphology : Scope and nature: concept of morpheme,
morph, allomorph, portmanteau morph, lexeme and word; identification of
morphemes; morphological alternation; morphophonemic process; internal
and external sandhi; derivation vs inflection; root and stem;
grammatical categories—tense, aspect, mood, person, gender, number,
case; case marker and case relation; pre- and post-positions; affixes vs
clitics; stem vs word-based morphology; paradigmatic and syntagmatic
relations.
3. Syntax and Semantics
Traditional and Structuralist Syntax : Parts of
speech; Indian classification of grammatical categories ( naama,
aakhyaata, upasarga, nipaata ); structural syntactic categories ( word,
phrase, clause etc. ); functional syntactic categories ( subject,
object, etc. ); construction types ( exocentric, indocentric, etc. ),
Immediate Constituent Analysis.
Generative Syntax : Universal grammar. Innateness
Hypothesis, meaning of the term ‘generative’, Transformational
generative grammar, criteria for determining constituents, Aspects
model, Problems with the Aspects model, Ross’s constraints; Principles
and Parameters.
Meaning : Types of meaning; descriptive, emotive and
phatic; sense and reference, connotation and denotation, sense
relations ( homonymy, synonymy, etc. ); types of opposition ( taxonomic,
polar, etc. ); ambiguity, sentence meaning and truth conditions,
presupposition, entailment and implicature. speech acts, deixis,
definiteness, mood and modality, componential analysis.
4. Historical Linguistics and South Asian Language Families
Introduction : Synchronic and diachronic approaches
to language; interrelationship between diachronic and synchronic data;
use of written records for historical studies; language classification;
notion of language family, criteria for identifying family relationships
among languages; definition of the word ‘cognate’; language isolates;
criteria for typological classification—agglutinative, inflectional,
analytic, synthetic and polysynthetic; basic word order typology—SVO,
SOV, etc.
Linguistic Change and Reconstruction : Sound change;
Neogrammarian theory of gradualness and regularity of sound change;
genesis and spread of sound change; phonetic and phonemic change; split
and merger; conditioned vs unconditioned change; types of
change—assimilation and dissimilation, coalescence, metathesis^
deletion, epenthesis; Transformational-generative approach to sound
change—rule addition, rule deletion, rule generalisation, rule ordering;
social motivation for change; lexical diffusion of sound change;
analogy and its relationship to sound change; reconstructing the
proto-stages of languages, internal reconstruction and comparative
method—their scopes and limitations; innovation and retention; sub
grouping within a family; family tree and wave models; relative
chronology of different changes.
Language Contact and Dialect Geography : Linguistic
borrowing—lexical and structural; motivations—Prestige and need-filling (
including culture-based ); Classification of loan words—Loan
translation, loan blend, calque, assimilated and unassimilated loans (
tadbhava and tatsama ); Bilingualism as the source for borrowing;
dialect, idiolect; isogloss; methods of preparing dialect atlas, focal
area, transition area and relic area.
Language Families of South Asia : Indo-Aryan,
Dravidian-, Austro-Asiatic, Tibeto-Burman; language isolates—Bumshaski,
Nahali—-their. geographical distribution, enumeration; characteristics.
Areal Features of South Asia : South Asia as a
linguistic area—phonological—length contrast in vowels and consonants,
retroflexion, open syllable structure; morphemic structure rules;
morphological and syntactical—agglutination, ergativity, agreement;
productive use of conjunctive participles; passives; causatives;
echowords; phenomenon of reduplication; copulative compounds; compound
verbs, relative clause construction; dative /genitive subject
construction.
5. Socio-linguistics and Applied Linguistics
Language and Society : Speech community; verbal
repertoire; linguistic and communicative competence; linguistic
variability and ethnography of speaking; socio-linguistic variables;
patterns of variation; regional, social and stylistic; restricted and
elaborated codes; diglossia.
Languages in Contact : Types of bilingualism and bilinguals; borrowing; convergence; pidgins and creoles; language maintenance and shift.
Sociology of Language : Language planning; language standardization and modernization; language and power; literacy—autonomous us ideological.
Scope of Applied Linguistics : Language teaching;
translation studies; lexicography; stylistics; speech pathology; mass
media and communication; language and computers.
Language Learning and Language Teaching : First and
second language learning; language acquisition in multilingual settings;
behaviouristic and cognitive theories of language learning; social and
psychological aspects of second language acquisition; methods, materials
and teaching-aids in language teaching; Computer Assisted Language
Teaching ( CALT ); types of tests and their standardization.
Paper-III ( A )
[Core Group]
Unit—I
Phonetics : Phonetics as a study of speech sounds;
articulatory and acoustic phonetics; mechanisms of speech production—air
stream, phonation, oronasal process and articulation; classification of
sounds; complex articulation—secondary articulation and coarticulation.
Acoustic Phonetics : Sound waves—frequency,
amplitude; periodic complex harmonics; fundamental , frequency,
resonance, filtering, spectrum, spectrogram, pitch, loudness, length;
formants, transition, burst; voice onset time; aspiration; noise
spectra; cues for place and manner.
Phonemics : Phoneme, Phone and allophone; contrast
and complementary < distribution; preliminary and analytical
procedures of phonemic analysis.
Generative Phonology : Two levels of phonological
representation; phonological rules; distinctive features ( Major class,
Manner. Place, etc. ), Abstractness controversy; Rule ordering types.
Lexical Phonology : Distinction between lexical and post-lexical rules; principles of lexical phonology-—structure preservation; strict cyclicity.
Unit—II
Types of Morphemes : Root, stem, base, suffix, infix, prefix, portmanteau morpheme; affixes vs clitics.
Morphological Processes : Derivational vs inflectional processes ( conjugation and declension ); primary us secondary derivation.
Level-ordered Morphology : Hierarchical organization of words; lexical us non-lexical categories; morphology—phonology interface.
Types of Compounding : Endocentric ( karmadhaaraya,
tatpurusha ), exocentric ( bahuvriihi ) copulative compound ( dvandva )
and headedness of compounds; reduplication—morphological, lexical and
semantic; non- concatenative morphology.
Morphology-Syntax Interface : Nominalization and the
Lexicalist hypothesis; auxiliation ( explicator compound verb );
incorporation and the morphology—syntax interface.
Unit—III
General Notions : Structure and
structure-dependence, diagnostics for structure; reference, co reference
and anaphoric reference; deixis— Demonstratives, tense, pronominals;
context; topic, focus, focusing devices; mood; thematic roles ( agent,
patient, etc. ); grammatical relations ( subject, object, etc. ); case (
nominative, accusative, etc. )—their interrelationships.
Phrase Structure : X-bar theory; head, complement,
specifier; binary branching: S as IP, S-bar as CP; DP analysis of noun
phrases; head-complement parameter.
Some Syntactic Operations and Constructions :
Movement and trace: passive, raising, WH- movement ( questions,
relativization ), topicalization, scrambling; adjunction and
substitution; head-to-head movement, movement to SPL deletion ( gapping
and VP-deletion ); ECM ( exceptional case-marking ), constructions,
small clauses; clefts and psuedo clefts.
Some Principles of Grammar : Constraints on
movement—Ross’s constraints explained in terms of Subjacency; Government
and Proper Government; Case theory, case as motivation for movement;
Anaphors and Pronouns; Binding Theory ( Principles A, B and C ); strong
and weak cross-over; theta theory, theta marking; PRO as subject of
infinitives; quantifiers ( universal and existential ); quantifier
raising, scope ambiguity.
Unit—IV
Meaning ( descriptive, emotive, phatic ); sense and reference,
connotation and denotation; homonymy, hyponymy, antonymy, synonymy;
propositions, ambiguity, specific vs generic; definite and indefinite;
compositionality and its limitations; abihidha, laksana, vyanjana.
Pragmatics : Presupposition, entailment and implicature; speech acts, indexicals.
Formal Foundations : Membership, union,
intersection, cardinality, powersets: mapping and functions;
propositions, truth values, sentential connectives; arguments,
predicates, quantifiers, variables.
Model-theoretic Semantics : Different models and interpretation; possible words; mood and modality; tense and aspect, counterfactuals.
Unit—V
Phonological Reconstruction : Comparative method,
collection of cognates, establishing phonological correspondences;
reconstruction of the phonemes of the proto-language based on contrast
and complementation; internal reconstruction as opposed to comparative
reconstruction; morphophonemic alternations as the source for
reconstruction; recovering historical contrasts by comparing,
alternating and non-alternating paradigms; accounting for exceptions to
sound change—analogy, borrowing, onomatopoeia, the interplay of analogy
and sound change; regularisation by analogy; paradigmatic analogy and
pattern analogy; role of transparency in analogy; status of
reconstructed forms, dialect variation in proto-language.
Borrowing : Lexical and structural; different types
of borrowing-—cultural, intimate and dialect; classification of
loanwords; impact of borrowing on language; pidgins and creoles.
Dialect Geography : Preparation of questionnaire;
selection of informants and localities; elicitation of data; preparation
of isogloss maps; deciding dialect and -sub-dialect areas: correlating
political and cultural history with regional and social dialects.
Extensions of the Neogrammarian Theory : Social
motivation of social change: study of sound change in progress;
socio-linguistic studies of Martha’s. Vineyard. and New York City;
lexical diffusion—concept and application,
Morphosyntactic Reconstruction, and Semantic Change ; Phonological
reconstruction applied to morphological reconstruction; phonological
change leading to changes in morphology and syntax; syncretism,
grammaticalisation and lexicalisation; principles of recovering
grammatical categories and contrasts; semantic change—extension,
narrowing, figurative speech, subreption, postulation of past-cultural
systems—kinship and social system, environment, etc.
Unit—VI
Speech as Social Interaction : Speech community and
language boundaries; communicative competence; speech event and its
components; rules of speaking; social significance of Gricean Maxims and
conversational implicature; pragmatics of politeness; semantics of
power and solidarity; social processes and linguistic structures;
cross-cultural perspectives on speech events.
Linguistic Variability : Variation in linguistic
behaviour; language and identity; restricted and elaborated codes;
linguistic variables and their linguistic, social and psychological
dimensions; language and social inequality; linguistic and social
attitudes and stereotypes.
Language Contact : Bilingualism; bilingual
proficiency; code-mixing and code-switching; effects of bilingualism on
the individual and the society; languages of wider communication; lingua
franca; language loyalty, language maintenance and shift; language
convergence; pidginization and creolization.
Language Development : Language planning; corpus and
status planning; codification and elaboration; language movements—State
and societal interventions, e.g., writers and NGOs; script development
and modifications; problems of linguistic minorities;
literacy—socio-linguistic and political aspects.
Sociolinguistic Methodology : Sampling and tools;
identification of socio-linguistic variables and their variants; data
processing and interpretation; quantitative analysis; variable rules;
ethnomethodology; participant observation; qualitative analysis of data.
Unit—VII
Linguistics and Psycholinguistics : Language and
other signalling systems: biological bases of human
language—experimental studies of teaching language to primates, language
in evolutionary context, brain-language relationship and its models,
cerebral dominance and lateralization, bilingual brain, the critical
period hypothesis; the different theoretical orientations—
empiricist-behaviourist, biological nativist, and
congnitive—interactionalist; language and cognition—-Linguistic
relativity and perceptual categories.
Developmental Psycho-linguistics : First language
acquisition and second language learning; bilingual acquisition, issues
and processes in language acquisition; three periods in the history of
child language studies—diary, large sample and longitudinal; stages of
language acquisition; acquisition of formal aspects of language—speech
sounds, lexical items, grammatical and syntactic categories; language
and environmental factors—Motherese; second language
learning—implications of first language acquisitions; social and
psychological factors in second language learning; learning of reading
and writing skills.
Language Processing : The processes of
perception—comprehension and production; perceptual units and perceptual
strategies; parsing and parsing strategies; steps in comprehension;
sentence comprehension and discourse comprehension; mental
representation of language and lexicon; relationship between
comprehension and production; sentence and discourse strategies in
comprehension and production; speech errors as evidence of language
production.
Applied Psycho-linguistics : Aphasia and its
clinical and linguistic classifications; anomia, and dyslexia;
stuttering; language in mental retardation; language in schizophrenia;
language loss in aging; language in the hearing-impaired; data from
normative and pathological language and their use for assessment of
speech and language impairment; therapeutic intervention.
Unit—VIII
Processes of Learning : Language as a formal system
and as a major factor in communication; learning a language and learning
through language; behaviourist and cognitive theories of language
learning including—Skinner, Piaget and Chomsky, etc., learning and
communicative strategies, focus on the learner.
Language Teaching Analysis : Goals of language
teaching and needs of analysis —First and Second language acquisition,
Linguistic theory and language teaching syllabus—methods and materials;
the role of the teacher and teacher training; role of self-access
packages; socio-linguistic and psychological aspects of language
teaching.
Learner Output : Conceptualising language
proficiency in multi-lingual settings; interaction between the learner’s
languages and the target languages— Contrastive Analysis ( CA ), Error
analysis and Interlanguage; Basic Interpersonal Communicative Skills (
BICS ) and Cognitive Advanced Language Proficiency ( CALP ); types of
tests and their validity and reliability.
Literacy : Conceptualising literacy; role of
language in literacy; oralcy and literacy; literacy development and
empowerment; State initiatives, campaign- based programmes and other
non-governmental initiatives; literacy drives emergence and role of
social movements.
Mass Communication : Role of language in mass
communication; impact of mass media on language, types of language used
in mass media e.g., news, advertising, editorials, etc.; language of
mass media and social change.
Unit—IX
Language Typology, Universals and Linguistic Relatedness :
Language typology and language universals; Morphological types of
languages—agglutinative, analytical ( isolating ), synthetic fusional (
inflecting ), infixing and polysynthetic ( incorporating ) languages.
Formal and substantive universals, Absolute and statistical universals;
Implicational and Non-implicational universals; Linguistic
relatedness—Genetic, typological and areal classification of languages.
Inductive vs Deductive Approaches : Parametric
variation and language universals; Word Order typology; Greenberg’s
characteristics for verb final and verb medial languages and related
features in the context of South Asian Languages.
Salient Features of South Asian Language Families :
Phonetic, phonological, morphological, and syntactic features of
Indo-Aryan, Dravidian, Austro-Asiatic, and Tibeto-Burman language
families of South Asia; Language contact and convergence with special
reference to the concept of ‘India as a Linguistic Area’; Contact
induced typological change; convergence and syntactic change.
Phonology, Morphology and Syntax of South Asian Languages :
An in-depth study of retroflexion, vowel harmony, reduplication, echo
formation, expressives ( onomatopoeia ), morphological, lexical and
periphrastic causatives, explicator compound verbs, participles (
conjunctive, perfect, imperfect ), relative-correlative clauses,
experiencer constructions ( dative/genitive subject ), anaphora,
complementation, verb be, the quotative and agreement.
Unit—X
Making of a Dictionary ; Dictionary entries—arrangement and
information, meaning descriptions—synonymy, polysemy, homonymy, antonymy
and hyponymy; treatment of technical terms vs general words.
Types of Dictionaries : Comprehensive and concise,
monolingual and bilingual, general and learner’s, historical and
etymological, dictionary of idioms and phrases, encyclopaedic
dictionary, electronic dictionary, reverse dictionary, thesaurus and
other distinguishing purposes and features of various types; difference
between glossing, dictionary and lexicon.
Nature of Translation : Paraphrase, translation and
transcreation; translation of literary text and technical text; theories
of translation; use of linguistics in translation; linguistic affinity
and translatability. ’
Methods of Translation : Unit of translation;
equivalence of meaning and style; translation loss; problems of cultural
terms; scientific terms; idioms, metaphors and proverbs; evaluation of
translation; fidelity and readability; types of translation—simultaneous
interpretation, machine aided translation, media translation ( dubbing,
copy-editing, advertisement, slogans, jingles, etc. )
Nature and Methods of Stylistic Analysis :
Style—stylistic individual, style, period, style as choice, style as
deviation, style as riiti, style as alankaara; style as vyanjana (
vakrokti ) foregrounding; parallelism levels of stylistic
analysis—phonological, lexical, syntactic and semantic.
Paper-III ( B )
[ Elective / Optional ]
Elective—I
Introduction : Computational linguistics and its
relation to allied disciplines in cognitive science—philosophy,
psychology and artificial intelligence; a brief history of the area of
inquiry—Babbage to von Neuman, computing machines from the abacus to the
IBM PC; hardware—the basic components and peripherals of a digital
computer; software—machine langauge, compilers; interpreters—information
processing, structuring and manipulating data.
Phonology, Morphology and Lexicography : Finite
state implementation of phonological rules, item- and
arrangement-morphology and its implementation, item- and
process-morphology; a brief introduction to KIMMO; morphological
recognizers, analyzers and generators for Indian languages.
Computational Lexicography : The craft of dictionary
making; the digital computer as a lexicographic tool; lexical databases
and on-line dictionary— corpus-based dictionaries; lexical acquisition
from Machine Readable Dictionaries ( MRDs ); major lexicographical
projects—the Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English ( LDOCE ) and
the Collins Cobuild Project.
Parsing, Syntax and Semantics : Parsing and
generation, top-down and bottom up parsing; types of parsers;
unification and unification-based grammars— Definite Clause Grammar (
DCG ), Generalised Phrase Structure Grammar ( GPSG ); Lexical Functional
Grammar ( LFG ), Head-driven Phrase Structure Grammar ( HPSG ) and Tree
Adjoining Grammar ( TAG ).
Reference and compositionality, Functions and arguments, Meanings of
referring expressions and predicates; Meanings of determiners,
quantifiers, adverbs, adjectives and prepositions; Putting meanings.
Corpus Linguistics : Corpus-building and
corpus-processing, SGML and Text Encoding Initiative, Corpus tagging and
Tree banks, Corpus projects—the Brown Corpus and Lancaster-Oslo Bergen (
LOB ) Corpus, the Survey of English Usage ( SEU ), Corpus and
London-Lund Corpus of Spoken English ( LLC ), The Kolhapur Corpus of
Indian English; the TDIL Corpus Project of the Deptt. of Electronics.
Language Technology : Natural language interface to
databases, Cooperative response systems, Speech
.technology—text-to-speech and speech-to-text systems, Machine ( aided )
translation; computer aided language teaching; text processing; Major
European and American Projects; the Japanese Fifth Generation
Initiative, Natural langauge processing in India.
Elective—II
Basic Issues in the Principles and Parameters Theory :
Interaction of principles within certain parameters, language specific
examples and the question of basic word order; problems with the theory.
From Principles and Parameters Theory to the Minimalist Program :
Reasons for discarding D-structure and S-structure. How does the
computational system work in the Minimalist Program? Functional
categories and the significance of DP analysis; AGRsP, AGRoP, and Tense-
Phrase; scope for innovation to account for language specific phrasal
categories.
Some Key Concepts in the Minimalist Program :
Spell-out, greed, procrastination, last resort, AGR-based case theory,
multiple-spec hypothesis, strong and weak features; interpretable and
non-interpretable features.
Transformational Components : The copy theory of
Movement, its properties., motivation for move Alpha, LF and PF
movement, checking devices and features of convergence.
Elective—III
Prosodic Phonology ; The syllable, the Foot, the word, the
phonological phrase, the International phrase, Generalizations based on
prosodic units.
Auto segmental Phonology : Tone. Nasal spread, vowel harmony; C-V tier; Prosodic Morphology; feature hierarchy.
Non-derivational Phonology : Optimality theory—main theoretical assumptions: Constraint rankings.
Elective—IV
Socio-Linguistics : Socio-linguistic perspective to
the process of language change; social motivation and mechanisms of
sound change. Language, ideology and social change, the power-politics
of language standardization; Implications for literacy and school
education; language and gender.
Communication Networks : Networks and speech and
verbal repertoire, ‘Types of network, Redefining ‘speech community’ in
terms of networks, Speech and multiple identities.
Ethnography of Communication and Ethnomethodology ; ‘Talk’,
‘Discourse’ and ‘turntaking’; Redefining communicative competence;
Communication and social structure.
Elective—V
Brain-language Relationship : Issues in
neurolinguistics and linguistics aphasiology, cerebral dominance,
lateralization and handedness; models of brain-language
relationship—Classical connectionist, hierarchical, global and process
models.
Brain Pathology and Language Breakdown : Aphasia and
its classification; classical categories, linguistic account, overview
of linguistic aphasiology, anomia and agrammatism; dyslexia and its
classification.
Linguistics and Language Pathology : Use of linguistics in diagnosis and prognosis of language disorders; language pathology and normal language,
Language Pathology and Language Disorders ; Stuttering; nature and
analysis of language in psychopathological conditions; schizophrenic
language: language in mental retardation.
Language Disorders and Intervention : Variation in language disorders; need and scope of intervention: therapeutic use of language.
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